Ĭultural traits and organizational practices included over-reliance on past success as a substitute for sound engineering practices and organizational barriers, which prevented effective communication of critical safety information and professional differences of opinion. ![]() Mischaracterizations of the shuttle as operational rather than developmental, and Years of resource constraints, fluctuating priorities, and schedule pressures, Original compromises that were required to gain approval for the Shuttle Program, The organizational causes of this accident were described as emanating from the Space Shuttle Program's history and culture including: Present composite overwrapped pressure vessel technology, discussed in the next section of this chapter, does not appear to be fully mature, so there is likely to be additional possibilities for reducing weight and increasing safety from this technology in the future. With increasing orbital debris and concomitantly increasing probability for penetration, it is advisable to use pressure vessels with safety factors higher than those used on Apollo and the Space Shuttle and to provide appropriate protection or shielding to reduce the risk of ruptures in space. It appears the pressure vessels with the higher safety factors, that is, 2.0 or greater, have a greater life and are more damage tolerant. The International Space Station Program, which came after the Apollo and Space Shuttle Programs, requires pressure vessels with safety factors of 2.0 or greater. Therefore, in the early stages of a program, trade studies must be performed to evaluate the use of lower cost and heavier pressure vessels with safety factors of 2.0 and above as compared to the expensive pressure vessels with lower safety factors and very demanding quality assurance. The design analyses, acceptance and qualification testing, and quality assurance provisions are extremely demanding and make these types of pressure vessels very expensive. The NASA Apollo and Space Shuttle Programs demonstrated that, for high performance flight, lightweight pressure vessels with safety factors as low as 1.5 can be designed, tested, and utilized safely. Moreland, in Safety Design for Space Systems, 2009 17.4.4 Summary The entire HDR workflow aims to fulfill a primary requirement of image analysis, the ability to process, display, and analyze imagery with increased simultaneous contrast ratio.ĭean W. HDR displays are with expanded contrast ratio are becoming available. HDR data capture surpassing the dynamic range capability of film is becoming more prevalent, HDR file containers are available that support HDR data types, and HDR workflows allow the processing of HDR data. In the case of digital capture, files are available much faster, often with access to the RAW data quickly after launch. The film is developed and scanned, and the digital files are transported back to Kennedy Space Center after as much as a 24-h delay. ![]() ![]() After launch, the exposed films are collected, transported to a local airport, and flown to a development house often out of state. Operation and maintenance of film systems requires specialized skills sets. The process of developing film is time-consuming and costly, and is becoming more difficult to procure. Although the film emulsion can capture up to 13 stops, in most cases the film is transferred to a digital intermediate with reduced dynamic range, often displayed via a limited contrast ratio display. As the program ended, an upgrade of film assets to digital technology was cost-prohibitive in terms of equipment, infrastructure, training, and operation.Ī transition to digital technology for future programs, however, can provide several benefits. The development of digital imaging technology, along with increases in dynamic range capability, occurred as the Space Shuttle program reached the end of its life. With an ongoing maintenance program, they did not require regular replacement. The film assets were only minimally utilized, on average for 4.5 Space Shuttle flights per year. Debattista, in High Dynamic Range Video, 2016 20.3.5 Summary of Film Useĭuring the Space Shuttle program, 16 and 35 mm high-speed film cameras provided greater dynamic range capability than digital imagers available at the time.
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